anglu kalbos taisykles

Auxiliary verbs

Do is used to form negative and question forms of the Present Tense and did is used in the Past Simple Tense:

I don’t like it. Does she go to the University? He didn’t pass the exams. Didn’t we meet at the airport?

Do is used in the positive to give emphasis to a verb:

She is very busy. She does try hard. I did try to help, but there was no need.

Do is used in tag questions and short answers:

He wwrote it, didn’t he? She knows him better, doesn’t she? Who opened the window? Rose did.

Be + Present Participle (–ing) is used to form continuous tenses:

I am writing a letter now.

Be + Past Participle (–ed etc.) is used to form passive sentences:

The houses are built from bricks. It’ll be finished soon.

Have + Past Participle (–ed etc.) is used to form perfect tenses:

I have never been to London. They have already started it.

2. Modal auxiliary verbs

Unlike do, be, have (which only hhelp to form tenses) modal auxiliaries have their own meanings. They express:

• ability (can) – I can’t explain it.

• possibility (can, may) – Can I have my photo taken?

• permission (may) – May I use your book?

• uncertainty (may) – You mmay think you’re very old, but you strike me as extremely young.

• reproach (might) – You might come in time.

• obligation (must, ought to) – Children ought to respect their parents. He must earn money.

• advisability (should) – You should be more careful.

• necessity (need) – He did not need to be told twice.

• refusal (will not/won’t) – The car won’t start. (It “refuses” to start).

Some important modal phrases:

1. To have + Infinitive (obligation, necessity) is used as a modal expression in three tense forms: Present, Past and Future Indefinite.

I have to get up at seven every day. Did you have to get up at 7 on Sunday? She will have to come on time.

2. To be + Infinitive ((rather strict obligation, a planned action) is used as a modal expression in two tenses: Present and Past Indefinite (was, were).

You are to go straight to your room. We were to meet at the entrance of the theatre at a quarter to seven.

Remember:

• Be able to is possible instead of can, but can is more usual; can has only two forms: can (present) and could (past). Sometimes we have to use be able to:

I haven’t been able to sleep vvery well recently (can has no Present Perfect).

I’ll be able to help you (can has no Future Indefinite).

• Could is the past of can especially with these verbs: see, hear, smell, taste, feel, remember and understand:

I could remember only a few words.

I could play handball very well when I was at school. (General ability to do something).

• If we mean that someone managed to do something in one particular situation, we have to use was/were able to (not could):

He was a good runner so he was able to escape from the prison.

• We sometimes use could to talk about possible future actions, especially when we make suggestions and could have (done) to say that we had the ability or the oportunity to do something but did not do it:

We could go to the theatre this evening (Present). We could have gone to the theatre but we decided to stay at home. (Past)(We had the opportunity to go out but we didn’t.)

• Mainly it doesn’t matter which of must (do) or have to (do) we use:

I must / have to go.

But with must the speaker gives his own feelings:

Lina is seriously ill. I must visit her.

With have to the speaker ggives facts:

I have to get up early tomorrow.

Must is only used when we talk about the present and future:

I must read it. Must you hand it in next week?

Have to can be used in all forms:

We have to write about it. We had to write about it. We’ll have to write about it.

• We use do / does / did with have to in present/past questions and negative sentences:

Do you work? No, I’m extremely rich so I don’t have to work. She doesn’t have to get up so early. She gets up early because she prefers to.

• Mustn’t and don’t have to are completely different:

You mustn’t forget what I told you. (It is necessary that you do not forget). You don’t have to read this book. (It is not necessary to do it).

• Needn’t (do) means that it is not necessary to do something:

You needn’t worry.

• Instead of needn’t you can use don’t / doesn’t need to:

You don’t need to worry.

• We use needn’t have + Past Participle (–ed etc.) to say that someone did something but it wasn’t necessary:

I needn’t have hurried because the train was late.

• Didn’t need to is different from needn’t have:

I didn’t need to read, sso I didn’t. (An action was unnecessary). I needn’t have taken an umbrella, it didn’t rain. (It was not known at the time that the action was not necessary.)

3. English tense usage in the Active Voice

Remember:

• When you make a suggestion, you can say Why don’t you .? :

I am hungry. Why don’t we go and have a bite?

• When talking about one’s native country or city / town, we say:

“Where do you come from? Where are you from?” but not “Where are you coming from?”

We say “He comes from Germany” but not “He is coming from Germany.”

• Present Simple is used when we say how often we do things (every day (week etc.), often, usually, sometimes etc.). We say:

“I go to the university every week” but not “I am going to the university every week”.

We say ”She often visits us” but not “She is often visiting us”.

We say “He usually watches TV in the evening” but not “He is usually watching TV in the evening”.

Table of Tenses (Active)

Time

Aspect Present Past Future Future in the Past

Indefinite I go to the club every week. I went to the club last week. I shall go to the club next week. I said I should go to the club the following

week.

Continuous (Don’t speak to him.) He is working. When I came he was working. (Don’t come at 8.) I shall be working. He said he would be working at 8 o’clock.

Perfect 1. (I can return the books to the library.) I have read them.

2. I have already known him for 2 years. 1. I had read all the books by the 1st of September.

2. By 1994 I had known him for 10 years. 1. I shall have read all the books by the 1st of MMay.

2. By 2000 I shall have known him for 16 years. I said I should have read all the books by the 1st of May.

Perfect Continuous 1. I have been reading this book for a week.

2. (I am very tired.) I have been reading a lot. 1. I had been reading that book for a week when you asked me for it.

2. (I was very tired.)

I had been reading a lot. By the 1st of June I shall have been reading the book ffor a month. I said (that) by the 1st of June I should have been reading the book for a month.

• Do not use will to talk about what you have arranged to do in the nearest future:

She is going to PParis next week (but not “She will go” because she has already planned it).

• When we are talking about timetables, programmes etc., we say:

“The train leaves at 7.00 p. m.” but not “The train is leaving at 7.00 p. m.”.

We say “Tomorrow is Monday” but not “Tomorrow will be Monday”.

• When we offer, agree or refuse, promise and ask, we say:

“I’ll help you” but not “I help you”.

We say “I’ll bring it back as soon as possible” but not “I bring .”

We say “I promise I’ll phone” but not “I promise I phone.”

We say “Will you lend me a book?” but not “Do you lend me a book ?”

• We use shall (not will) in the questions shall I .? and sshall we .?

Shall I read ?

• We are not to mix gone to and been to:

He is away on business. He has gone to New York. (He is there now or he is on his way there.)

Lina is at home now. She has been to Belgium. (She has been there but now she has returned home.)

• We often use have got / has got rather than have / has alone:

We’ve got a new house. Have you got a new hhouse?

But in the past we do not normally use got:

When we lived in Kaunas, we had an old house. Did you have an old house when you lived in Alytus?

“Have got” is not possible in these expressions: have breakfast (lunch, dinner, a cup of coffee, etc.); have a swim (a walk, a holiday etc.); have a bath / a wash etc.; have a look (at sth.); have a baby; have a chat; have a good time.

We make questions and negative sentences with these expressions using do / does / did:

I didn’t have a good time yesterday.

• We are not to confuse I used to do and I am used to doing. The structures and their meanings are different:

I used to spend a lot of money. (I spent much money but I no longer spend it.)

I am used to spending a lot of money. (I spend much money; it is like a habit because I have been spending a lot of money for some time.)

• There are some verbs which are not normally used in continuous tenses (but there are exceptions): want, like, belong, know, suppose, need, love, see, realise, mean, prefer, hate, hear, believe, understand, remember, forget, seem, sound, appear, smell, ttaste, wish, own, think (when the meaning is “believe”), have (when it is used for actions or the meaning is “possess”).

• Conditionals (if and wish sentences) are formed in this way:

a) Present Tense after if / Future Tense in the main clause:

If you get up earlier, we’ll be in time.

b) Past Simple after if / Future in the Past in the main clause:

If you got up earlier, we would be in time. (But we probably won’t.)

If I were you, I would go to the meeting. (But, of course, I am not you.)

c) Past Perfect after if /Future in the Past Perfect in the main clause:

If I had had enough money, I would have bought that castle.

(Hypothesis about the past. It is impossible to change what happened now.)

d) we also use the past for a present situation after wish:

I wish I knew English better. (I don’t know it very well.)

e) in if sentences and after wish we can use were instead of was:

If I were you I would phone him. = If I was you. .

I wish my dress were more beautiful. = I wish my dress was. .

f) simply, we don’t use would in the if part of the ssentence or after wish:

If I were a Queen, I would travel a lot (not If I would be.).

g) we don’t use will/shall after in case, with unless, as long as, provided or providing when we are talking about the future:

He is going to take an umbrella in case it rains. We’ll be late unless we hurry. Providing he studies hard he will pass an exam.

h) in case of is different from in case:

In case of fire, please leave the building as soon as possible (if the building is on fire).

4. English tense usage in the Passive Voice

Table of Tenses (Passive)

Time

Aspect Present Past Future Future in the Past

Indefinite I am arrested.

He is arrested.

We are arrested. I was arrested.

He was arrested.

We were arrested. I shall be arrested.

He will be arrested.

We shall be arrested. He said I should be arrested.

They said he would be arrested.

Continuous I am being arrested.

He is being arrested.

We are being arrested. I was being arrested.

He was being arrested.

We were being arrested.

Perfect I have been arrested.

He has been arrested.

We have been arrested. I had been arrested.

He had been arrested.

We had been arrested. I shall have been arrested.

He will have been arrested.

We shall have been arrested. He said I should have been arrested.

They said he would have been arrested.

Perfect Continuous

Remember:

• Be born is a passive verb and is usually past: I was born in Vilnius.

• Some verbs can have two objects: They didn’t offer Andrew the job. (The two objects Andrew and the job).

So it is possible to make two different passive sentences: Andrew wasn’t offered the job. The job wasn’t offered to Andrew.

5. A Table of Irregular Verbs

Infinitive Past Past Participle

abide

arise

awake

be

bear

beat

become

begin

bend

bet

bid

bind

bite

bleed

blow

break

breed

bring

build

burn

burst

buy

cast

catch

choose

cleave

cling

clothe

come

cost

creep

cut

deal

dig

do

draw abode

arose

awoke

was

bore

beat

became

began

bent

bet, betted

bade, bid

bound

bit

bled

blew

broke

bred

brought

built

burnt, burned

burst

bought

cast

caught

chose

clove, cleft, cleaved

clung

clothed

came

cost

crept

cut

dealt

dug

did

drew abode, abided

arisen

awake, awoken

been

born

beaten

become

begun

bent, bended

bet, betted

bidden, bid

bound

bitten, bit

bled

blown

broken

bred

brought

built

burnt, burned

burst

bought

cast

caught

chosen

cloven, cleft

clung

clothed, cclad

come

cost

crept

cut

dealt

dug

done

drawn

dream

drink

drive

dwell

eat

fall

feed

feel

fight

find

flee

fling

fly

forsake

forswear

freeze

get

gird

give

go

grind

grow

hang

have

hear

hew

hide

hit

hold

hurt

keep

kneel

knit

know

lade

lay

lead

lean

leap

learn

leave

lend

let

lie dreamt, dreamed

drank

drove

dwelt

ate

fell

fed

felt

fought

found

fled

flung

flew

forsook

forswore

froze

got

girded

gave

went

ground

grew

hung

had

heard

hewed

hid

hit

held

hurt

kept

knelt

knitted, knit

knew

laded

laid

led

leant, leaned

leapt, leaped

learnt, learned

left

lent

let

lay dreamt, dreamed

drunk, drunken

driven

dwelt

eaten

fallen

fed

felt

fought

found

fled

flung

flown

forsaken

forsworn

frozen

got

girded, girt

given

gone

ground

grown

hung

had

heard

hewn

hidden, hid

hit

held

hurt

kept

knelt

knitted, knit

known

laden

laid

led

leant, leaned

leapt, leaped

learnt, learned

left

lent

let

lain

light

lose

make

mean

meet

mow lighted, lit

lost

made

meant

met

mowed lit, lighted

lost

made

meant

met

mown, moved

pay

prove

put

read

rend

rid

ride

ring

rise

run

saw

say

see

seek

sell

send

set

sew

shake

shave

shear

shed

shine

shoe

shoot

show

shrink

shrive

shut

sing

sink

sit

slay

sleep

slide

slink

smell

sow

speak

speed

spell

spend

spill

spin

spit

split

spoil

spread

spring

stand

stave

steal

stick

sting

stride

strike

strive

swear

sweep

swell

swim

swing

take

teach

tear

tell

think

thrive

throw

thrust

tread

understand

upset

wake

wear

weave

wed

weep

wet

win

wind

write paid

proved

put

read

rent

rid, ridded

rode

rang

rose

ran

sawed

said

saw

sought

sold

sent

set

sewed

shook

shaved

sheared / shore

shed

shone

shod

shot

showed

shrank

shrived

shut

sang

sank

sat

slew

slept

slid

slunk

smelt, smelled

sowed

spoke

sped

spelt, spelled

spent

spilt, spilled

spun, span

spat

split

spoilt, spoiled

spread

sprang

stood

staved, stove

stole

stuck

stung

strode

struck

strove

swore

swept

swelled

swam

swung

took

taught

tore

told

thought

throve, thrived

threw

thrust

trod

understood

upset

woke, waked

wore

wove

wedded

wept

wet, wetted

won

wound

wrote paid

proved, proven

put

read

rent

rid, ridded

ridden

rung

risen

run

sawn, sawed

said

seen

sought

sold

sent

set

sewn, sewed

shaken

shaved, shaven

shorn, sheared

shed

shone

shod

shot

shown, showed

shrunk, shrunken

shriven

shut

sung

sunk, sunken

sat

slain

slept

slid, slidden

slunk

smelt, smelled

sown, sowed

spoken

sped

spelt, spelled

spent

spilt, spilled

spun

spat

split

spoilt, spoiled

spread

sprung

stood

staved, stove

stolen